Syria and United States conflict

Changes in the family essays

Changes in the family essays h Out of Australia's 4.6 million children aged under eighteen, 1.1 million children live with only one of their natural parents, usually as a result of relationship or marriage breakdown. h 18 per cent of children were in one-parent families and 8 per cent were in step or blended families. h The vast majority of children, who had a natural parent living elsewhere, were in the sole care of the parent with whom they lived, while 3 per cent of children had parents who shared care more evenly between them. h Younger children were likely to visit the parent they did not live with more frequently than older children. h 42 per cent of families (199,200 one-parent families and 53,700 step and blended families) received cash child support from the other parent . h A further 16 per cent of families received support such as clothing, pocket money and assistance with school fees. h 41 per cent of families received no child support from the other parent. h Around one-third of all families receiving cash child support received, on average, $100 or less per month per child. h For one-parent families, the median income for families receiving child support was $18,200, while for those not receiving child support it was $16,900. h For step and blended couple families, the median income for families receiving child support was $45,140, while for those not receiving child support it was $37,440. The 1997 Family Characteristics Survey examined exchanges between children and parents who live apart, most often as a consequence of marriage or relationship breakdown. While administrative records of child support arrangements are maintained by the Child Support Agency, this was the first time that the ABS conducted a national survey of child support and visiting arrangements. Information includes frequency and duration of contact between chi ...

MRI Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

MRI - Essay Example Apart from these condyles, which are bony prominences, the distal end of humerus has two depressions as well. The bony depression on the anterior side is known as coronoid fossa, while the posterior depression is known as olecranon fossa. The areas where the bones connect to each other are referred to as articular surfaces. The elbow joint is articulated at Radioulner, Radiohumeral and Ulnohumeral joints. These articular surfaces are covered by the hyaline cartilage. A joint capsule, which is lined by Synovial membrane, encloses the entire joint in such a way that all three joint cavities remain in communication with each other. The elbow joint is stabilized by ligaments. These include Radial and Ulnar Collateral ligaments and the annular ligament of the head of radius. The medial side of the joint is strengthened by the Ulnar collateral ligament whereas the radial collateral ligament stabilizes the lateral side. The head of radius is connected to the radial notch of ulna by the annu lar ligament which runs around the head of radius. The movements at the elbow joint are facilitated by the muscles attached in this region. These muscles are organized into four different compartments according to their position, namely anterior, posterior, lateral and medial. The anterior group has two muscles, biceps brachii and brachialis. Posterior group has triceps brachii and anconeus muscles. The lateral group has brachioradialis and supinator muscles as well as the extensors of wrist and fingers. Whereas the flexor muscles of wrist and fingers, along with pronator teres muscle form the part of medial group. The arterial blood supply to the elbow region is through brachial artery. The venous drainage is by the way of brachial vein, median vein and median cubital vein. The nerves supplying the elbow region include musculocutaneous nerve, radial nerve, ulnar nerve and axillary nerve. MRI IMAGE FOE ELBOW The daily activities performed by the hands, grasping and the coordinated m ovements at the forearm and wrist are possible because of the complex synovial joint at the elbow which is referred to as the elbow joint (Lee et al 2003). It connects the distal end of the upper arm bone humerus to the proximal ends of the two forearm bones radius and ulna. The bones are articulated at trochlea and capitulum of humerus above and trochlear notch of ulna and the head of the radius below (Snell 2004). The three bones are articulated at four joints, together known as cubital articulations, i.e, humeroulner, humeroradial, superior radioulner and inferior radioulner (Stroyan et al 1993). The articular surfaces are covered by hyaline cartilage and the joint is enclosed by the capsule, lined by synovial membrane. The capsule serves to stabilize the joint along with the two ligaments, i.e. lateral collateral ligament and the ulnar collateral ligament. Anteriorly, the capsule attaches to the radial and coronoid fossae and the medial and lateral epicondyles of humerus above a nd to the coronoid process of ulna and annular ligament of radius head below. The posterior attachments of capsule are to the olecranon processes of humerus above and ulna below, and the annular ligament of radius head below (Snell 2004). The fan shaped lateral collateral ligament attaches lateral epicondyle of humerus to the annular ligament of radius. The triangular ulnar collateral

Professional Capstone Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Professional Capstone Project - Essay Example In particular, the paper analyzes the problem or issue identified in the articles, strengths and weakness of the articles and proposed recommendations/solutions. Lastly, the paper gives a rationale to support the choice of the literature and its significance to the project. The articles propose pain prevention theories other than use of therapies. The first search strategy applied in the study is the use of well-built clinical questions. In this context, well-built research questions are those deduced from the research topic so that they respond to key issues that form the topic. 1. Ferrel, B., Levy, M. H., & Paice, J. (2008). Managing pain from advanced cancer in the palliative care setting. Clinical Journal of Oncology Nursing, 12 (4), 575-81. The author proposes a gate control theory of pain among cancer patients in palliative care. In particular, the article recommends integration of physical, physiological, social, and spiritual therapies for the well-being of patients. This app roach is of key interest to patients and caregivers/nurses. ... 2. Kumar, S. P. (2011). Reporting characteristics of cancer pain: A systematic review and quantitative analysis of research publications in palliative care journals. Indian Journal of Palliative Care, 17 (1), 57-66. This article identifies cancer as a â€Å"global health burden† and has reviewed existing scientific literature on palliative to establish whether there exists â€Å"adequate scientific research base on cancer pain† (Kumar, 2011, p. 57). The article proposes that adequate scientific research would be instrumental in pain management among cancer patients. In particular, effective research practices would enable researchers to identify chief causes of pain among cancer patients. Moreover, adequate research will make recommendations concerning the problem. The article uses sociological theories of self-awareness to solve cancer pain among patients. The article complies with up-to-date research on pain management among cancer patients, and hence is significant i n the study. 3. Fayers, P. M., Hjermstad, M. J., Klepstad, P., Loge, J. H., Caraceni, A., Hanks, G. W., & Kaasa, S. (2011). The dimensionality of pain: Palliative care and chronic pain patients differ in their reports of pain intensity and pain interference. Pain, 152 (7), 1608-20. The article draws attention to the significance of accuracy in assessment of pain in palliative care. There are different levels of pain among terminally ill patients, and hence the need for different pain management practices. The article proposes the specificity theory as the best pain management theory among cancer patients. The article uses quantitative research techniques to categorize cancer pain. The article identifies intensity and

The Role of Communication and Personality in Negotiation Research Paper

The Role of Communication and Personality in Negotiation - Research Paper Example The paper tells that one of the greatest successful negotiations in history is the Israeli Armistice Agreement in 1949 between Israel and its neighbors. After Israel had attained its independence in 1948, it was invaded by its neighbors led by Egypt. The negotiation was led by a black American known as Ralph Bunch, who had grown up under segregation for his color. At the beginning of the negotiation, neither party could even look or talk to the other. It was somewhat a miracle that the negotiation was a success in the end. Over the period of 6 months that the negotiation took place; Ralph managed to break down the conflict into manageable bits to be worked on differently in order to lessen the work. The strategy he used was starting with the easier bits as a way of building trust with the parties and then, later on, got into the hard bits. Every time the parties arrived at an agreement, Ralph would make sure that an agreement was signed just to ensure that the parties get into the ha bit of signing agreements. An example of one of the greatest failures in the history of negotiations would be the Geneva nuclear talks between Iran and the Western powers. The talk was between Iran and the so-called P5 + 1 group of world powers. The negotiations finally came to a halt when French walked out of the negotiations with the reason that they needed to get some form of control of the nuclear power. Over the past ten years, there have been a lot of negotiations between the Western powers and Iran on nuclear power. All the negotiations were never a success due to the fact that Iran always got the raw end of the deal. As much as Iran was willing to make a number of concessions, the Western powers, on the other hand, were not so lenient. The negotiation was more one-sided in terms of the concessions. Despite the unfairness, Iran was still willing to sign the deal. However, the Western powers still walked out of the negotiation with a number of excuses, which were quashed by th e Russian negotiators.

Aspects to Translating Literature

Aspects to Translating Literature 1.) Introduction Translating texts requires skill, ability on the part of a translator in understanding the terms used in the source language (SL). As experts have pointed out, translation does not fully transfer the meaning of the terms from the SL toward the target language (TL) in which the texts are being translated. But in order to get closely as much as possible to the exact meaning of the term, translators follow a basic rule to put into mind the cultural nuances of the original term while finding their equivalent terms in another language (e.g. Arabic to English). In addition, because these terms have additional symbolic value as religious terms, translators must bear in mind of being careful in the translation. Toury (198 in Venuti ed.) himself highlights the role of translation in retaining the cultural nuances of the texts by saying that translators have a task â€Å"to fulfill a function allotted by a community to an activity, its practitioners and their products in a way deemed appropri ate to its terms of reference.† This researcher intends to ascertain the skill and success of Issam Diab in translating Ar Raheeq al Makhtoom, the memoirs of the Prophet Mohammad, from Arabic into English. Titled The Sealed Nectar, the memoirs records the life of Mohammad, while also discussing the socio-ecnomic background of Arabia during his lifetime. It was originally written by Saifur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri. 2.) Review of literature in brief Translation experts have pointed out various concerns in ensuring the translation of works from different languages. These range from defining when translations â€Å"formally† diverge from the literal meanings (Catford 141 in Venuti ed.) to ascertaining the equivalence of word meanings (Nida and Taber,) But all point to the problem of retaining the message of a text translated from SL to TL as much as possible. In addition translators have to consider the referential meanings of the words that they correspond so that they can define the exact meanings of the SL-based words that they are going to use. Culture aspects Studies such by Ahmed Elimam being conducted at the University of Manchester have tried to show the challenges in translating Arabic-language texts to English. Translators undertaking these projects faced the fact that there is a large diversity in terms of structural, grammatical, and semantic structure between the two languages. In addition they have to consider keeping as close as possible to the Arabic heritage the translated works. They also have to make sure that they words in Arabic which, by virtue of having deep cultural connotations, One can see this in the ongoing project to translate the Q’uran from Arabic to English as shown by Elimam. In this project, a team of translators tried to examine 10 translation of verses from the Q’uran and examine what are the grammatical and syntax changes were done in order to adjust in from the transfer of meaning from Arabic to English. Another continuing study made at the University of Manchester was of Ashraf Abdul Fattah was on comparing the changes of conjunction and passivisation in the translated works of Arab authors. This time the focus was on how changes in conjunction were made between the original and translated work made by the same authors. One can see here the attempt to verify if an author trying to translate his own works to another language can effectively transfer meaning given the differences in languages. 3). Issues in translation Translation studies have pointed out that there are terms in texts which must be carefully analyzed by a translator before proceeding in the translation proper. These terms are called â€Å"sensitive terms† which are defined as words considered central to the beliefs of the people owning the original texts. These may pertain to sacred teachings, quotations by the religions’ prophets or sages. Because of these, it is vital for translators to understand the religious beliefs, traditions and nuances behind the SL before undertaking any translation of religious texts. However, similar to translating works in other genres, translators have to deal with linguistic and cultural challenges before even being able to translate a work. According to Toury (199 in Venuti ed.), the main challenges faced by translators involve the systematic differences between languages (in terms of grammar, syntax, sentence structure), the variety in textual traditions contained in the texts to be translated, and also the â€Å"cognitive ability† of the translator to comprehend and transmit the meanings of the original texts from the original language to another language. In translating these terms, it is essential to consider first some important aspects in translation: translation shifts, kinds of norms types of equivalence, and emotive meaning. These factors determine how closely concise has a translator managed to express in the TL the meanings and terms originally expressed in the source language SL of a text . Translating texts involve changes in the use of grammar, contexts, and sentence structure, said Cartford (141 in Venuti ed.) in a seminal study on translation shifts. These translation changes are categorized as level shifts and categorical shifts. Level shifts occur in translation when the meaning of an SL item, at one linguistic level, changes meaning at another linguistic level of the TL. In particular, this kind of shift occurs when the translator attempts to translate the meanings at the phonological and graphological meanings but the result will be only a shift from grammar to lexis levels. Categorical shifts occur when there are variations in rank, structure, class, term in systems while a text is being translated from the SL to the TL. But Cartford (141 in Venuti ed.) qualifies this description by saying that there is a categorical shift when there is some form of formal correspondence between SL and TL. Structural shifts are the most common kind of categorical shifts and are noticeable in total translations, phonological and graphological translations Cartford (143 in Venuti ed.) added. Class shifts happen when the meaning of an SL item changes at a different translation level. Unit changes are observed when there is â€Å"a formal departure† in translation equivalent in one rank of the SL to another rank in the TL. Finally, intra-system shifts occur in cases where changes happen within the systems of both of SL and TL, where these systems still correspond to the languages’ â€Å"formal constitution.† However this must be qualified if the translation â€Å"involves selection of non-corresponding term in the TL system† Toury (199 in Venuti ed.) noted that translators are constrained by a wide range of â€Å"social regulations† which govern the behavior of a cultural community. This implied that there are particular cultural contexts which must be retained in the translation of terms from one language to another. At one pole of this continuum, are the absolute rules. These rules include local laws, ethics and traditions. At the other end are the idiosyncracies which pertain to the particular practices of individuals exhibited according to a particular situation. Located in between these far ends of the socio-cultural regulation scale are the norms which refer to the generally flexible set of rules governing particular situations in a context. These three kinds of social regulations influence translation because texts contain particular contexts which could only be explained through understanding these social regulations. Toury (200 in Venuti ed.) also pointed out that translation is a norm-governed activity because it also follows a set of rules pertaining to usage and transfer of meaning. This is flexible because each language has its particular meaning and context, hence the rules in terms of grammar and syntax may not be always be applicable. As he notes in his article, translation is being governed by norms depending on: Being a text in a certain language, and hence occupying a position, or filling a slot, in the appropriate culture, or a certain section thereof; Constituting a representation in that language/culture of another, preexisting text in some other language, belonging to some other culture and occupying a definite position. In translation, there are two large categories of norms which must be considered in planning and doing a translation of a work, namely: preliminary norms and operation norms. Preliminary norms pertain to the rules and policies governing the choice of text types to be translated and also the â€Å"tolerance† for translation (referring to the feasibility of translating terms which may have very specific cultural contexts not available in the language of the translator.), said Toury. Operational terms, he added, refer to the actual decisions made in the course of translations such as the distribution of textual material, verbal formulation and the like. Falling under operational norms are matricial (referring to the determination on the very existence of a textual material) and textual norms (which govern selection and usage of textual material to be translated.) Toury said that in general preliminary norms predominate over operational norms because the former lays down the structural basis in conducting a translation work (203). However despite this, the norms may still intersect, depending on the translation processes ensuing in a work. He also explained that multiplicity of norms still remain because each culture retains standards of regulating behavior even as they interact with other traditions. As a result translators have to face it and try to resolve them rather than just â€Å"ignore.† In Toury’s own words: â€Å" They only mean that real-life situations tend to be complex; and this complexity had better be noted rather than ignored, if one is to draw any justifiable conclusions. As already argued, the only viable way out seems to be to contextualize every phenomenon, every item, every text, every act, on the way to allotting the different norms themselves their appropriate position and valence† (205 in Venuti ed.) Another point of concern among linguist and translators is the equivalence of translating a meaning from the SL to the TL. Nida and Taber (200) defined equivalence as â€Å"very close similarity in meaning as opposed to similarity to form.† However, translation theorists have various concepts to explain and classify equivalence. Hoang pointed out in an online presentation that Nida and Taber had already gave out formal and dynamic equivalence in 1982 while Jakobensen theorized in 1959 equivalence can be achieved by a translator by using loan translations, neologisms, semantic shifts and circumlocutions. In 1992 Mona Baker came out with her own set of kinds of equivalences. These are â€Å"word level equivalence,† â€Å"equivalence above word level,† â€Å"grammatical equivalence† â€Å"textual â€Å"equivalence† and â€Å"pragmatic â€Å"equivalence.† Baker’s classification falls under the â€Å"formal’ equivalence category which focuses on how translators can use the forms of the texts in getting the closest meaning for an SL word, said Hoang. â€Å"Word level equivalence† refers to the attempt by a translator to find a corresponding meaning of one word from the SL to the TL. This effort entails a translator ensuring as much as possible that the counterpart word of the TL closely hews to the context of the original word from the SL. There are cases however when the texts between SL and TL do not correspond close enough to allow for the use of word level equivalence. In this case the translator must use the â€Å"equivalence above word level.† Here, the translator must find meanings which, while not be closely relate the corresponding TL word with the original SL word, must at least be related enough for the meanings to be still correlated. In the third strategy, the translator uses it when the correspondence between the two texts would only be found between the grammatical structures of the text. As a result, the translator has to analyse the grammatical correspondence between the texts of SL and TL, where despite the variety in the structural order of morpheme, syntax, and sentence orders, the same concepts or meaning can still be correlated between the two texts. However, there are instances when there is little correspondence in the verbal and grammatical structures of the SL and TL texts because there of a high diversity in the order of word and grammar structure. In light of this, the translator has to find correspondence in the overall textual structure of the SL and TL texts. He has to ascertain that the overall context in the SL text is still expressed in the TL version even though there are variations in grammar and syntax structures. If all these strategies still would not be able to correspond meaning between the SL and TL, then the translator has to use the pragmatic equivalence mode. Here, the translator uses the implied meanings of the SL text in order to at least express them in the TL . Another aspect in translating concepts from SL to TL is the use by translators of referential meanings. Nida (56) defines â€Å"referential meanings† as the use of â€Å"words as symbols to refer to objects, events, abstracts and relations.† The implication of this concept in translation is that translators have to consider the exact meanings of words based from OL in the translation of texts. (This is called denotation in grammar) This importance is highlighted by the fact that there is a diversity of meanings within those cultures and more so when translators try to get these exact meanings. One way to ensure this is to consult authoritative dictionaries of the SL concerned. One last aspect to consider in translation is the effect of emotive meanings to the translators. The Summer Institute of Linguistics online glossary defines â€Å"emotive meanings† as â€Å"affective meaning,† while terms related to it are â€Å"connotation/connotative meanings.† In sum, emotive meanings are definitions which have an association with a thing or concept even though these may not have direct conceptual relationship. The translators have to consider this while translating works from SL to TL because there are chances when the meanings that they try to correlate from SL to TL may just be a connotative meaning. Another way is to verify the specific contexts when these words are used. Aims The researcher aims to test, compare and synthesize the discussions above on various translation principles by conducting a review of â€Å"The Sealed Nectar (Ar Raheeq al Makhtum).† An English translation of the memoirs of the Prophet Muhammad was made by Issam Diab and was published in Saudi Arabia. With this translated memoir as the locus of the study, this researcher aims to fulfill the following aims: For the translation shift aspect, the researcher proposes to compare the source language (Arabic) and target language (English), identifying the translation shifts that happened in the book, and justifying the translator’s choice in making these translation shifts. As for the normative aspect, the researcher proposes to find out a.) if the translated version of the memoirs has consistency in the kind of norms and equivalence used even as it approached referential meaning. And b.) if the translated version has consistency in the kind of norms and equivalency while appr oaching emotive meaning. Finally, the researcher intends to contextualize the findings in the fact that many of the â€Å"sensitive terms† may be religious in nature This is study is made also with the aim of understanding the cultural and linguistic nuances distinguishable between English and Arabic. The researcher would like to point out in particular that the Arabic used here was the version spoken during the time of Muhammad, hence it is necessary to understand the historic-cultural background of the narrative. In addition the researcher would like to find out if there possible refinements which could be recommended for Diab’s work. Aside from it, the researcher will also cite these recommendations as possible future references with regard to translations of memoirs, specifically Arabic memoirs. Hypotheses and Research questions The research would like to resolve in this study the following hypotheses regarding the translation of â€Å"sensitive terms† in The Sealed Nectar. The researcher hypotheses that : there is consistency in the kind of norms and types of equivalence used while approaching referential meaning of sensitive terms either in the translation of religious texts or the book there is consistency in the kind of norms and types of equivalence used while approaching emotive meaning of sensitive terms either in the translation or the book. The researcher also hopes to answer specific questions in the course of this study. These are: what are the translation shifts adopted by the translator while tackling sensitive terms? to what extent do the kind of norms and type of equivalence represent consistency in approaching referential meaning. to what extent do the kind of norms and type of equivalence represent consistency in approaching emotive meaning. what are the most successful techniques and strategies used by the translator in conveying the meaning? what are the least successful techniques and strategies used by the translator in conveying the meaning? Approach As part of analyzing the â€Å"sensitive terms† used in the book The Sealed Nectar, this researcher intends to use the qualitative method of research. As generally known in academic and research circles, the qualitative method is used when the focus of the study intends to look at observing at particular characteristics of the sample subject which may be distinct from the general population. For this purpose, the researcher will both utilize three kinds of qualitative methods: book review analysis, documentary research and contrastive analysis. This researcher believes that it is necessary to use three kinds of methods because of the range of issues involved in the study and that each method have their particular loci. Initially the researcher will utilise the book review analysis to get a grasp of what they entire work contains, and to ascertain the particular context of the ‘sensitive terms† included in the book In this regard, this writer proposes to first utilise the book review analysis in studying the work The Sealed Nectar He will primarily use the linguistic perspective in dissecting the translation merits of this book because his focus would be on how Issam Diab translated â€Å"sensitive terms: from Arabic to English. In the context of this analysis, this writer proposes also to use a) the British National Corpus and b.) an authoritative Arabic dictionary to assist him in comparing the â€Å"sensitive terms† which are the foci of this research. Then the researcher will apply the documentary analysis method to compare the details from the book with details from other pertinent documents. These documents may include other Arab dictionaries, additional biographies on Mohammad, other Arab-language dictionaries and authoritative history books on Arabia. For the final part of the evaluation process, the researcher will apply the comparative analysis method wherein the findings from the two methods would be examined against each other. The researcher will then draw conclusions from this comparative study and then synthesise it with previous findings on translation to In the process of evaluating the translation, the researcher will cite previous theories and principles on translation, then use these as benchmarks in how successful was the English translation of Diab of Ar-Raheeq al-Makhtum in terms of transferring most of the original meaning from the original Arabic to English. In this aspect, this writer will primarily use the theories enunciated by Catford (141-147 in Venuti ed.) on translation shifts, Toury (198-211 in Venuti ed.) on translational norms, Baker on types of equivalence, and Nida (56-90) on referential meaning. But the researcher is open to using other kinds of research methodology if circumstances would warrant it. For example, the interview approach would be utilised if the researcher thinks there is a need to consult scholars on Arabic language, studies and literature. This is because the historical context of the narrative is key to understanding whatever â€Å"sensitive terms† which are enclosed in the work. Aside from that, it may be helpful if the researcher can get insights from these scholars regarding English translations of Arabic language works. This is because from their expert opinions, the researcher may further understand the change of nuances in translation, but not only from a purely technical aspect (translations shifts etc.), but also from the point of view of rhetoric and literary excellence. Tools For the purpose of this study, the research will use the following research tools in analyzing the Diab’s translation work: British National Corpus. an authoritative Arabic dictionary (preferably with references to Arabia during the time of Mohammad), two other biographies of Mohammad, and authoritative history books on Arabia. The reason behind citing these documents as tools in analyzing The Sealed Nectar is that the researcher wants to ensure that the needed details with regard to the study are utilized. The British National Corpus would serve as a guide on English words used in the book, to get the proper context of their usage. Then this will be complemented by the use of an Arabic language dictionary, to see how the original meaning and nuances of the SL based original version of the biography Then to put context into the analysis, the researcher will cite history books on Arabia to verify the authenticity of particular historical instances mentioned in the book. The res earcher thinks that a combined use of textual and historical analysis will help elucidate details on the accuracy of Diab’s translation. Scope While other interested researchers may find a whole range of translation issues in analyzing The Sealed Nectar, this writer intends to focus more on the accuracy of translating â€Å"sensitive terms† in the translation work. This is because these terms are loaded with religious meanings, which make these terms more challenging to translate as compared to other terms. In addition, the languages used have different nuances (Arabic as against modern English) which entails additional challenges in ensuring that the meanings of the terms do not get lost in translation. Tentative Outline of Paper : Within an allotted timeframe of a minimum of three years, this writer proposes an outline of the paper’s body: Chapter One: Linguistic analysis of sensitive terms in translation à   6 -12 months Chapter Two: Cultural, historical, and rhetorical aspects of the translation à   6-12 months Chapter Three: Evaluating the translation à   3-6 months Chapter Four: Summary, implications and recommendations à   3-6 months The writer intends to use the Sealed Nectar and the tools mentioned above in the first two years of the study. While he may formulate preliminary findings in the course of the study, the researcher intends to finalize them in the last year of the study through evaluation and formulation of summary findings and recommendations. The researcher takes note that accomplishing these aims may overlap depending on the availability of resources and the rate of research/analysis work. Books Nida, E, and Taber C. The Theory and Practice of Translation. Boston: Brill, 2003.pp. 56- 90 Chapters in Books Catford, J.C.. Translation Shifts.' The Translation Studies Reader. Ed. Lawrence Venuti. London: Routledge, 2000. 141-147 Toury, Gideon. Nature and Role of Norms in Translation.† (orig. 1978, rev. 1995) The Translation Studies Reader. Ed. Lawrence Venuti. London: Routledge, 2000. 198-211 Websites: Ar Raheeq Al Maktoom. University of Arkansas. July 28,2009 Translation Equivalence. Hoang. October 19 2008. July 28, 2009 . Elimam. University of Manchester. July 28, 2009 . Abdul Fattah. University of Manchester. July 28, 2009 Glossary. Summer Institute of Linguistics. July 28, 2009 . Aspects to Translating Literature Aspects to Translating Literature 1.) Introduction Translating texts requires skill, ability on the part of a translator in understanding the terms used in the source language (SL). As experts have pointed out, translation does not fully transfer the meaning of the terms from the SL toward the target language (TL) in which the texts are being translated. But in order to get closely as much as possible to the exact meaning of the term, translators follow a basic rule to put into mind the cultural nuances of the original term while finding their equivalent terms in another language (e.g. Arabic to English). In addition, because these terms have additional symbolic value as religious terms, translators must bear in mind of being careful in the translation. Toury (198 in Venuti ed.) himself highlights the role of translation in retaining the cultural nuances of the texts by saying that translators have a task â€Å"to fulfill a function allotted by a community to an activity, its practitioners and their products in a way deemed appropri ate to its terms of reference.† This researcher intends to ascertain the skill and success of Issam Diab in translating Ar Raheeq al Makhtoom, the memoirs of the Prophet Mohammad, from Arabic into English. Titled The Sealed Nectar, the memoirs records the life of Mohammad, while also discussing the socio-ecnomic background of Arabia during his lifetime. It was originally written by Saifur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri. 2.) Review of literature in brief Translation experts have pointed out various concerns in ensuring the translation of works from different languages. These range from defining when translations â€Å"formally† diverge from the literal meanings (Catford 141 in Venuti ed.) to ascertaining the equivalence of word meanings (Nida and Taber,) But all point to the problem of retaining the message of a text translated from SL to TL as much as possible. In addition translators have to consider the referential meanings of the words that they correspond so that they can define the exact meanings of the SL-based words that they are going to use. Culture aspects Studies such by Ahmed Elimam being conducted at the University of Manchester have tried to show the challenges in translating Arabic-language texts to English. Translators undertaking these projects faced the fact that there is a large diversity in terms of structural, grammatical, and semantic structure between the two languages. In addition they have to consider keeping as close as possible to the Arabic heritage the translated works. They also have to make sure that they words in Arabic which, by virtue of having deep cultural connotations, One can see this in the ongoing project to translate the Q’uran from Arabic to English as shown by Elimam. In this project, a team of translators tried to examine 10 translation of verses from the Q’uran and examine what are the grammatical and syntax changes were done in order to adjust in from the transfer of meaning from Arabic to English. Another continuing study made at the University of Manchester was of Ashraf Abdul Fattah was on comparing the changes of conjunction and passivisation in the translated works of Arab authors. This time the focus was on how changes in conjunction were made between the original and translated work made by the same authors. One can see here the attempt to verify if an author trying to translate his own works to another language can effectively transfer meaning given the differences in languages. 3). Issues in translation Translation studies have pointed out that there are terms in texts which must be carefully analyzed by a translator before proceeding in the translation proper. These terms are called â€Å"sensitive terms† which are defined as words considered central to the beliefs of the people owning the original texts. These may pertain to sacred teachings, quotations by the religions’ prophets or sages. Because of these, it is vital for translators to understand the religious beliefs, traditions and nuances behind the SL before undertaking any translation of religious texts. However, similar to translating works in other genres, translators have to deal with linguistic and cultural challenges before even being able to translate a work. According to Toury (199 in Venuti ed.), the main challenges faced by translators involve the systematic differences between languages (in terms of grammar, syntax, sentence structure), the variety in textual traditions contained in the texts to be translated, and also the â€Å"cognitive ability† of the translator to comprehend and transmit the meanings of the original texts from the original language to another language. In translating these terms, it is essential to consider first some important aspects in translation: translation shifts, kinds of norms types of equivalence, and emotive meaning. These factors determine how closely concise has a translator managed to express in the TL the meanings and terms originally expressed in the source language SL of a text . Translating texts involve changes in the use of grammar, contexts, and sentence structure, said Cartford (141 in Venuti ed.) in a seminal study on translation shifts. These translation changes are categorized as level shifts and categorical shifts. Level shifts occur in translation when the meaning of an SL item, at one linguistic level, changes meaning at another linguistic level of the TL. In particular, this kind of shift occurs when the translator attempts to translate the meanings at the phonological and graphological meanings but the result will be only a shift from grammar to lexis levels. Categorical shifts occur when there are variations in rank, structure, class, term in systems while a text is being translated from the SL to the TL. But Cartford (141 in Venuti ed.) qualifies this description by saying that there is a categorical shift when there is some form of formal correspondence between SL and TL. Structural shifts are the most common kind of categorical shifts and are noticeable in total translations, phonological and graphological translations Cartford (143 in Venuti ed.) added. Class shifts happen when the meaning of an SL item changes at a different translation level. Unit changes are observed when there is â€Å"a formal departure† in translation equivalent in one rank of the SL to another rank in the TL. Finally, intra-system shifts occur in cases where changes happen within the systems of both of SL and TL, where these systems still correspond to the languages’ â€Å"formal constitution.† However this must be qualified if the translation â€Å"involves selection of non-corresponding term in the TL system† Toury (199 in Venuti ed.) noted that translators are constrained by a wide range of â€Å"social regulations† which govern the behavior of a cultural community. This implied that there are particular cultural contexts which must be retained in the translation of terms from one language to another. At one pole of this continuum, are the absolute rules. These rules include local laws, ethics and traditions. At the other end are the idiosyncracies which pertain to the particular practices of individuals exhibited according to a particular situation. Located in between these far ends of the socio-cultural regulation scale are the norms which refer to the generally flexible set of rules governing particular situations in a context. These three kinds of social regulations influence translation because texts contain particular contexts which could only be explained through understanding these social regulations. Toury (200 in Venuti ed.) also pointed out that translation is a norm-governed activity because it also follows a set of rules pertaining to usage and transfer of meaning. This is flexible because each language has its particular meaning and context, hence the rules in terms of grammar and syntax may not be always be applicable. As he notes in his article, translation is being governed by norms depending on: Being a text in a certain language, and hence occupying a position, or filling a slot, in the appropriate culture, or a certain section thereof; Constituting a representation in that language/culture of another, preexisting text in some other language, belonging to some other culture and occupying a definite position. In translation, there are two large categories of norms which must be considered in planning and doing a translation of a work, namely: preliminary norms and operation norms. Preliminary norms pertain to the rules and policies governing the choice of text types to be translated and also the â€Å"tolerance† for translation (referring to the feasibility of translating terms which may have very specific cultural contexts not available in the language of the translator.), said Toury. Operational terms, he added, refer to the actual decisions made in the course of translations such as the distribution of textual material, verbal formulation and the like. Falling under operational norms are matricial (referring to the determination on the very existence of a textual material) and textual norms (which govern selection and usage of textual material to be translated.) Toury said that in general preliminary norms predominate over operational norms because the former lays down the structural basis in conducting a translation work (203). However despite this, the norms may still intersect, depending on the translation processes ensuing in a work. He also explained that multiplicity of norms still remain because each culture retains standards of regulating behavior even as they interact with other traditions. As a result translators have to face it and try to resolve them rather than just â€Å"ignore.† In Toury’s own words: â€Å" They only mean that real-life situations tend to be complex; and this complexity had better be noted rather than ignored, if one is to draw any justifiable conclusions. As already argued, the only viable way out seems to be to contextualize every phenomenon, every item, every text, every act, on the way to allotting the different norms themselves their appropriate position and valence† (205 in Venuti ed.) Another point of concern among linguist and translators is the equivalence of translating a meaning from the SL to the TL. Nida and Taber (200) defined equivalence as â€Å"very close similarity in meaning as opposed to similarity to form.† However, translation theorists have various concepts to explain and classify equivalence. Hoang pointed out in an online presentation that Nida and Taber had already gave out formal and dynamic equivalence in 1982 while Jakobensen theorized in 1959 equivalence can be achieved by a translator by using loan translations, neologisms, semantic shifts and circumlocutions. In 1992 Mona Baker came out with her own set of kinds of equivalences. These are â€Å"word level equivalence,† â€Å"equivalence above word level,† â€Å"grammatical equivalence† â€Å"textual â€Å"equivalence† and â€Å"pragmatic â€Å"equivalence.† Baker’s classification falls under the â€Å"formal’ equivalence category which focuses on how translators can use the forms of the texts in getting the closest meaning for an SL word, said Hoang. â€Å"Word level equivalence† refers to the attempt by a translator to find a corresponding meaning of one word from the SL to the TL. This effort entails a translator ensuring as much as possible that the counterpart word of the TL closely hews to the context of the original word from the SL. There are cases however when the texts between SL and TL do not correspond close enough to allow for the use of word level equivalence. In this case the translator must use the â€Å"equivalence above word level.† Here, the translator must find meanings which, while not be closely relate the corresponding TL word with the original SL word, must at least be related enough for the meanings to be still correlated. In the third strategy, the translator uses it when the correspondence between the two texts would only be found between the grammatical structures of the text. As a result, the translator has to analyse the grammatical correspondence between the texts of SL and TL, where despite the variety in the structural order of morpheme, syntax, and sentence orders, the same concepts or meaning can still be correlated between the two texts. However, there are instances when there is little correspondence in the verbal and grammatical structures of the SL and TL texts because there of a high diversity in the order of word and grammar structure. In light of this, the translator has to find correspondence in the overall textual structure of the SL and TL texts. He has to ascertain that the overall context in the SL text is still expressed in the TL version even though there are variations in grammar and syntax structures. If all these strategies still would not be able to correspond meaning between the SL and TL, then the translator has to use the pragmatic equivalence mode. Here, the translator uses the implied meanings of the SL text in order to at least express them in the TL . Another aspect in translating concepts from SL to TL is the use by translators of referential meanings. Nida (56) defines â€Å"referential meanings† as the use of â€Å"words as symbols to refer to objects, events, abstracts and relations.† The implication of this concept in translation is that translators have to consider the exact meanings of words based from OL in the translation of texts. (This is called denotation in grammar) This importance is highlighted by the fact that there is a diversity of meanings within those cultures and more so when translators try to get these exact meanings. One way to ensure this is to consult authoritative dictionaries of the SL concerned. One last aspect to consider in translation is the effect of emotive meanings to the translators. The Summer Institute of Linguistics online glossary defines â€Å"emotive meanings† as â€Å"affective meaning,† while terms related to it are â€Å"connotation/connotative meanings.† In sum, emotive meanings are definitions which have an association with a thing or concept even though these may not have direct conceptual relationship. The translators have to consider this while translating works from SL to TL because there are chances when the meanings that they try to correlate from SL to TL may just be a connotative meaning. Another way is to verify the specific contexts when these words are used. Aims The researcher aims to test, compare and synthesize the discussions above on various translation principles by conducting a review of â€Å"The Sealed Nectar (Ar Raheeq al Makhtum).† An English translation of the memoirs of the Prophet Muhammad was made by Issam Diab and was published in Saudi Arabia. With this translated memoir as the locus of the study, this researcher aims to fulfill the following aims: For the translation shift aspect, the researcher proposes to compare the source language (Arabic) and target language (English), identifying the translation shifts that happened in the book, and justifying the translator’s choice in making these translation shifts. As for the normative aspect, the researcher proposes to find out a.) if the translated version of the memoirs has consistency in the kind of norms and equivalence used even as it approached referential meaning. And b.) if the translated version has consistency in the kind of norms and equivalency while appr oaching emotive meaning. Finally, the researcher intends to contextualize the findings in the fact that many of the â€Å"sensitive terms† may be religious in nature This is study is made also with the aim of understanding the cultural and linguistic nuances distinguishable between English and Arabic. The researcher would like to point out in particular that the Arabic used here was the version spoken during the time of Muhammad, hence it is necessary to understand the historic-cultural background of the narrative. In addition the researcher would like to find out if there possible refinements which could be recommended for Diab’s work. Aside from it, the researcher will also cite these recommendations as possible future references with regard to translations of memoirs, specifically Arabic memoirs. Hypotheses and Research questions The research would like to resolve in this study the following hypotheses regarding the translation of â€Å"sensitive terms† in The Sealed Nectar. The researcher hypotheses that : there is consistency in the kind of norms and types of equivalence used while approaching referential meaning of sensitive terms either in the translation of religious texts or the book there is consistency in the kind of norms and types of equivalence used while approaching emotive meaning of sensitive terms either in the translation or the book. The researcher also hopes to answer specific questions in the course of this study. These are: what are the translation shifts adopted by the translator while tackling sensitive terms? to what extent do the kind of norms and type of equivalence represent consistency in approaching referential meaning. to what extent do the kind of norms and type of equivalence represent consistency in approaching emotive meaning. what are the most successful techniques and strategies used by the translator in conveying the meaning? what are the least successful techniques and strategies used by the translator in conveying the meaning? Approach As part of analyzing the â€Å"sensitive terms† used in the book The Sealed Nectar, this researcher intends to use the qualitative method of research. As generally known in academic and research circles, the qualitative method is used when the focus of the study intends to look at observing at particular characteristics of the sample subject which may be distinct from the general population. For this purpose, the researcher will both utilize three kinds of qualitative methods: book review analysis, documentary research and contrastive analysis. This researcher believes that it is necessary to use three kinds of methods because of the range of issues involved in the study and that each method have their particular loci. Initially the researcher will utilise the book review analysis to get a grasp of what they entire work contains, and to ascertain the particular context of the ‘sensitive terms† included in the book In this regard, this writer proposes to first utilise the book review analysis in studying the work The Sealed Nectar He will primarily use the linguistic perspective in dissecting the translation merits of this book because his focus would be on how Issam Diab translated â€Å"sensitive terms: from Arabic to English. In the context of this analysis, this writer proposes also to use a) the British National Corpus and b.) an authoritative Arabic dictionary to assist him in comparing the â€Å"sensitive terms† which are the foci of this research. Then the researcher will apply the documentary analysis method to compare the details from the book with details from other pertinent documents. These documents may include other Arab dictionaries, additional biographies on Mohammad, other Arab-language dictionaries and authoritative history books on Arabia. For the final part of the evaluation process, the researcher will apply the comparative analysis method wherein the findings from the two methods would be examined against each other. The researcher will then draw conclusions from this comparative study and then synthesise it with previous findings on translation to In the process of evaluating the translation, the researcher will cite previous theories and principles on translation, then use these as benchmarks in how successful was the English translation of Diab of Ar-Raheeq al-Makhtum in terms of transferring most of the original meaning from the original Arabic to English. In this aspect, this writer will primarily use the theories enunciated by Catford (141-147 in Venuti ed.) on translation shifts, Toury (198-211 in Venuti ed.) on translational norms, Baker on types of equivalence, and Nida (56-90) on referential meaning. But the researcher is open to using other kinds of research methodology if circumstances would warrant it. For example, the interview approach would be utilised if the researcher thinks there is a need to consult scholars on Arabic language, studies and literature. This is because the historical context of the narrative is key to understanding whatever â€Å"sensitive terms† which are enclosed in the work. Aside from that, it may be helpful if the researcher can get insights from these scholars regarding English translations of Arabic language works. This is because from their expert opinions, the researcher may further understand the change of nuances in translation, but not only from a purely technical aspect (translations shifts etc.), but also from the point of view of rhetoric and literary excellence. Tools For the purpose of this study, the research will use the following research tools in analyzing the Diab’s translation work: British National Corpus. an authoritative Arabic dictionary (preferably with references to Arabia during the time of Mohammad), two other biographies of Mohammad, and authoritative history books on Arabia. The reason behind citing these documents as tools in analyzing The Sealed Nectar is that the researcher wants to ensure that the needed details with regard to the study are utilized. The British National Corpus would serve as a guide on English words used in the book, to get the proper context of their usage. Then this will be complemented by the use of an Arabic language dictionary, to see how the original meaning and nuances of the SL based original version of the biography Then to put context into the analysis, the researcher will cite history books on Arabia to verify the authenticity of particular historical instances mentioned in the book. The res earcher thinks that a combined use of textual and historical analysis will help elucidate details on the accuracy of Diab’s translation. Scope While other interested researchers may find a whole range of translation issues in analyzing The Sealed Nectar, this writer intends to focus more on the accuracy of translating â€Å"sensitive terms† in the translation work. This is because these terms are loaded with religious meanings, which make these terms more challenging to translate as compared to other terms. In addition, the languages used have different nuances (Arabic as against modern English) which entails additional challenges in ensuring that the meanings of the terms do not get lost in translation. Tentative Outline of Paper : Within an allotted timeframe of a minimum of three years, this writer proposes an outline of the paper’s body: Chapter One: Linguistic analysis of sensitive terms in translation à   6 -12 months Chapter Two: Cultural, historical, and rhetorical aspects of the translation à   6-12 months Chapter Three: Evaluating the translation à   3-6 months Chapter Four: Summary, implications and recommendations à   3-6 months The writer intends to use the Sealed Nectar and the tools mentioned above in the first two years of the study. While he may formulate preliminary findings in the course of the study, the researcher intends to finalize them in the last year of the study through evaluation and formulation of summary findings and recommendations. The researcher takes note that accomplishing these aims may overlap depending on the availability of resources and the rate of research/analysis work. Books Nida, E, and Taber C. The Theory and Practice of Translation. Boston: Brill, 2003.pp. 56- 90 Chapters in Books Catford, J.C.. Translation Shifts.' The Translation Studies Reader. Ed. Lawrence Venuti. London: Routledge, 2000. 141-147 Toury, Gideon. Nature and Role of Norms in Translation.† (orig. 1978, rev. 1995) The Translation Studies Reader. Ed. Lawrence Venuti. London: Routledge, 2000. 198-211 Websites: Ar Raheeq Al Maktoom. University of Arkansas. July 28,2009 Translation Equivalence. Hoang. October 19 2008. July 28, 2009 . Elimam. University of Manchester. July 28, 2009 . Abdul Fattah. University of Manchester. July 28, 2009 Glossary. Summer Institute of Linguistics. July 28, 2009 .

Theodore Roethkes Root Cellar Essay -- Root Cellar Theodore Roethke E

Theodore Roethke's "Root Cellar"   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Theodore Roethke was raised in Michigan, where cities and towns are woven with lakes, streams, and rivers. This atmosphere gave Roethke a â€Å"mystical reverence for nature,† (McMichael, 1615) and allowed him to take a grotesque image and transform it into natural magnificence. A great example of this is Roethke’s poem â€Å"Root Cellar.† The poem describes a cellar, which most people would consider to be a death-baring, cold place. Instead, Roethke gives the dungeon life and enchantment. The first line gives the reader an idea that the cellar is awake. In the second line, there is a description of the plants left in numerous boxes that search for a bit of light to help them continue their existence. The plants’ roots hanging from the crates that are packed into the small space are portrayed in the third, fourth and fifth lines. The odor of the cellar is acknowledged in the sixth line. The seventh line describes the aging of the roots. The eighth line describes the stems of the plants and gives them more dimensions. The ninth line depicts the floor’s slipperiness. The tenth and eleventh lines describe how everything in the cellar was trying to hold on to their life for as long as possible. Roethke’s ability of creating imagery in this poem lets the reader visualize every aspect of the cellar.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Roethke uses a few different literary modes to help create his imagery. Metaphor and similes are figures of speech in which a word or phrase tha...

Philosophy -210: Appearance vs. Reality Essay

Abstract What is knowledge? How do we come to have knowledge? What are the different sources of knowledge? How do we know anything at all? The philosophers and theories I will cover here are not concerned with knowledge itself but how we actually gain knowledge. How do we gain knowledge? Are we born with it? How do we know what we’ve learned is real. That is some of the questions these philosophers try to answer with their theories on knowledge. But do we agree or disagree with them? That is the question. Introduction. Before we begin discussing philosophers and their theories we must have a basic understanding of Epistemology which is the branch of philosophy concerned with the study of knowledge and belief. There are two schools of thought in epistemology, rationalism and empiricism. Empiricists like Bertrand Russell and David Hume believe that sense experience is the ultimate starting point for all knowledge and that knowledge is obtained from experience only. But yet rationalist like Rene Descartes claimed that the ultimate starting point for all knowledge is not the senses but reason and that knowledge can only be obtained through logic and reasoning. Philosophy is not a waste of time! It is a way to open new doors within one’s mind. (Bertrand Russell. ) Bertrand Russell’s essay on appearance versus reality attempts to do just that and open one’s mind to considering how things we see are not really as they seem. Is there any knowledge in the world which is so certain that no reasonable person could doubt it? Bertrand Russell circa (1872-1970) page. 73-77 & page. 82 – 86. Russell believed that all knowledge is ultimately derived from our sensory perceptions of the world around us. Russell coined the term â€Å"sense data† in his attempt to discern the relationship between appearance and reality. Sensory data is how an individual would perceive things based on touch, smell, taste, sight, or auditory stimulation. Can it not be manipulated? If an individual is under the influence of alcohol or drugs is there sensory information not impaired by the effects of both. I believe the point Russell is trying to make is that what is real to us may not be real at all. But do you agree with him. What would his counter parts think of his theories? Would Descartes agree? What about Hume. Rene Descartes circa (1596-1650) page. 87-91 Descartes believed that pure reason is the most reliable form of knowledge, he was a rationalist. He did not believe that the information gained through our senses was reliable and that our senses could be deceived. He doubted the reliability of sense perception and believed that knowledge could only be obtained through the methodical application of reason. With that said, what would Descartes’s think of Bertrand Russell’s theories regarding how knowledge is obtained? Would Russell’s theories conflict with his own? * I believe Descartes would challenge Russell’s theories by arguing that you could not rely solely on sensory information in order to gain knowledge. Descartes would say that we experience sensory stimulation while sleeping therefore we cannot only rely on sensory input as the only form of learning. He would claim that certain things in the universe are naturally constant and not open to interpretation or manipulation. III. David Hume circa (1711-1776) page 108-117 David Hume believed that all human knowledge is based on relations amongst ideas or what he called sense impressions, and that knowledge depends entirely on the evidence provided by our senses. Therefore anything not given an experience is a mere invention and must be discarded. He believed that human reason or inquiry could be divided into two categories, relations of ideas and matter of fact. As with Russell, Hume was an empiricist. He was more concerned about what and how we know and not with what is actually the case. Although Hume and Russell differed in their philosophical theories I believe they would agree with one another to an extent. Conclusion I can’t say I disagree with any one of the philosophers theories referenced in the text. In fact I personally believe that you have to apply all of their theories in order to gain knowledge. We do learn from example and from experience, but yet some things can’t be explained by logic and reasoning. Are babies not born hungry? If they are born with no knowledge how do they know they’re hungry. I believe in order to truly gain knowledge you must keep an open mind to all possibilities and forms of learning. Works Cited â€Å"Bertrand Russell. † (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). N. p. , n. d. Web. 11 Nov. 2012. . Cahn, Steven M. Exploring Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology. New York: Oxford UP, 2000. Print. â€Å"David Hume. † (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). N. p. , n. d. Web. 11 Nov. 2012. . â€Å"Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. † Hume, DavidA []. N. p. , n. d. Web. 11 Nov. 2012. . â€Å"Online Research in Philosophy. † Steven M. Cahn (ed. ), Exploring Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology. N. p. , n. d. Web. 11 Nov. 2012. . â€Å"Rene Descartes. † Rene Descartes. N. p. , n. d. Web. 11 Nov. 2012. .

The Big Bang and the Origin of Everything

The Big Bang and the Origin of Everything How did the universe begin? Thats a question scientists and philosophers have pondered throughout history as they looked at the starry sky above. Its the job of astronomy and astrophysics to provide an answer. However, its not an easy one to tackle. An artists concept of what the Big Bang might have looked like, if anybody had been around to see it. HENNING DALHOFF / Getty Images The first major glimmerings of an answer came from the sky in 1964. Thats when astronomers Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson discovered a microwave signal buried in data they were taking to look for signals being bounced from Echo balloon satellites. They assumed at the time that it was simply unwanted noise and attempted to filter out the signal. The antenna that Penzias and Wilson were using when they stumbled across the signals from the cosmic background radiation heralding the birth of the universe. Fabioj, CC BY-SA 3.0 However, it turns out that what they detected was coming from a time shortly after the beginning of the universe. Although they didnt know it at the time, they had discovered the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB). The CMB had been predicted by a theory called the Big Bang, which suggested that the universe began as a densely hot point in space and suddenly expanded outward.  The two mens discovery was the first evidence of that primordial event. The Big Bang What started the birth of the universe? According to physics, the universe sprang into existence from a singularity - a term physicists use to describe regions of space that defy the laws of physics. They know very little about singularities, but its known that such regions exist in the cores of black holes. Its a region where all the mass gobbled up by a black hole gets squeezed into a tiny point, infinitely massive, but also very, very small. Imagine cramming Earth into something the size of a pinpoint. A singularity would be smaller. Thats not to say the universe began as a black hole, however. Such an assumption would raise the question of something existing before the Big Bang, which is pretty speculative. By definition, nothing existed prior to the beginning, but that fact creates more questions than answers. For instance, if nothing existed prior to the Big Bang, what caused the singularity to be created in the first place? Its a gotcha question astrophysicists are still trying to understand.   However, once the singularity was created (however it happened), physicists have a good idea of what occurred next. The universe was in a hot, dense state and began to expand through a process called inflation. It went from very small and very dense, to a very hot state. Then, it cooled as it expanded.  This process is now referred to as the Big Bang, a term first coined by Sir Fred Hoyle during a British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) radio broadcast in 1950. Although the term implies some kind of explosion, there really wasn’t an outburst or a bang. It was really the rapid expansion of space and time. Think of it like blowing up a balloon: as someone blows air in, the exterior of the balloon expands outward. The Moments after the Big Bang The very early universe (at a time a few fractions of a second after the Big Bang began) was not bound by the laws of physics as we know them today. So, no one can predict with great accuracy what the universe looked like at that time. Yet, scientists have been able to construct an approximate representation of how the universe evolved. First, the infant universe was initially so hot and dense that even elementary particles  such as protons and neutrons could not exist. Instead, different types of matter (called matter and anti-matter) collided together, creating pure energy. As the universe began to cool during the first few minutes, protons and neutrons began to form. Slowly, protons, neutrons, and electrons came together to form hydrogen and small amounts of helium. During the billions of years that followed, stars, planets, and galaxies formed to create the current universe. Evidence for the Big Bang So, back to Penzias and Wilson and the CMB.  What they found (and for which they won a Nobel Prize), is often described as the â€Å"echo† of the Big Bang. It left behind a signature of itself, just like an echo heard in a canyon represents a â€Å"signature† of the original sound. The difference is that instead of an audible echo, the Big Bangs clue is a heat signature throughout all of space. That signature has been specifically studied by the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) spacecraft and the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP). Their data provide the clearest evidence for the cosmic birth event.   The detailed, all-sky picture of the infant universe created from seven years of WMAP data. The image reveals 13.7 billion year old temperature fluctuations (shown as color differences) that correspond to the seeds that grew to become the galaxies. NASA / WMAP Science Team Alternatives to the Big Bang Theory While the Big Bang theory is the most widely accepted model that explains the origins of the universe and is supported by all the observational evidence, there are other models that use the same evidence to tell a slightly different story. Some theorists argue that the Big Bang theory is based on a false premise - that the universe is built on an ever-expanding space-time. They suggest a static universe, which is what was originally predicted by Einstein’s theory of general relativity. Einstein’s theory was only later modified to accommodate the way the universe appears to be expanding.  And, expansion is a big part of the story, particularly as it involves the existence of  dark energy. Finally, a recalculation of the mass of the universe seems to support the Big Bang theory of events.   While our understanding of the actual events is still incomplete, CMB data are helping shape the theories that explain the birth of the cosmos. Without the Big Bang, no stars, galaxies, planets, or life could exist.   Fast Facts The Big Bang is the name given to the birth event of the universe.The Big Bang is thought to have occurred when something kicked off the expansion of a tiny singularity, some 13.8 billion years ago.Light from shortly after the Big Bang is detectable as the cosmic microwave radiation (CMB). It represents light from a time when the newborn universe was lighting up some 380,000 years after the Big Bang occurred. Sources â€Å"The Big Bang.†Ã‚  NASA, NASA, www.nasa.gov/subject/6890/the-big-bang/.NASA, NASA, science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/what-powered-the-big-bang.â€Å"The Origins of the Universe.†Ã‚  National Geographic, National Geographic, 24 Apr. 2017, www.nationalgeographic.com/science/space/universe/origins-of-the-universe/. Updated and edited by Carolyn Collins Petersen.

Jfk

Jfk J.F.K. John Fitzgerald Kennedy was the youngest person to be ever be elected President, and was youngest to die in office. He was shot and killed on Nov. 22, 1963, after he had serve in office only two years and 10 months as chief executive. The whole world mourned Kennedy's death and Former presidents and royalty walk behind his casket at his funeral. His Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson took his place then they succeeded him as President.The Kennedy Assassination A deadly assassin shot President John F. Kennedy to death when he rode through the streets of Dallas, Tex. The death continued the very unhappy coincidence that, since William H. Harrison, what is weird that every American President to be elected in a year ending in "0" had died or been killed while in office.The purpose When Kennedy Came to Texas He was Accompanied by his wife and Vice President and Mrs.English: President John F. Kennedy with Vice Presi...

What is a Code of Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

What is a Code of Ethics - Essay Example Ethics works in both ways in terms of employee commitment. A workplace is expected to establish a working environment where employees would want to come to work and be productive because of pride in what they do for a living. This gives the employees the motivation to stick with the company. A healthy and happy working environment makes the workforce enthusiastic about their works. In return, the employees become willing to cooperate with the company even in times of crisis. Employees are willing to extend a hand to lift up the spirit of the company as a part of its team instead of turning their back. They keep the confidentiality of matters that involve the company and maintain a good reputation as well that can also reflect the good image of their company. Investor loyalty is in one way or another, related to employee commitment. What would make an investor stick into something is a good service and return on/of investment. It is said that ethical business practices would include actions such as not using marketing materials or campaigns that mislead consumers (Tatum, 2003).

ASSESSMENT This module is assessed through One Literature Review (3500 Essay

ASSESSMENT This module is assessed through One Literature Review (3500 words) which you must submit electronically Submit - Essay Example The banner of ‘Islamic world’ and its homogeneity is represented by discursive practices and not by diversity of geographical boundaries, politics, history, language as well as broader contexts of material life. Various sources including new orthodoxy in government circles as well as mass media represents Islam as an ‘exceptional’ case making Muslims to be detached racialized and essentialised (Hunt, 2002). The veil is considered as an Islamist attire symbolizing loyalty to the religion and analogous to swastika used by Nazism. The argument over Muslim women’s clothing has led to emerging political battles. However, wearing the veil is considered part of the agenda of Islamic fundamentalism ( Modood, 2009 ). According to the article the veil is barbaric symbol which have been fought years past but still presents symbol of inequality and lack of freedom for women. The veil amongst other issues is considered to hide various women characteristics, virtue and status, for instance it could hide a loving mother as well as truly religious woman. There is some level of difficulty in differentiating which of the women hidden in veil represent genuine Islam. Linking the veil to Islamic fundamentalism of ‘child marriage’ and ‘murder’ represents it as a symbol of barbarism as discussed above (de Castro, 2004). This has been considered as contributing towards larger percentage of Islamophobic atmosphere which links veiling to illegal activities which in actual sense are far away from the truth. According to this article, the veil is compared to balaclava normally used by armed robber or a mugger. This is because both outfits shield identities of the wearer. In the same instance, the veil is considered as key signifier of Islam especially in ‘war against terror’ where it is constructed in the imagery of intruding violent threat. The attire has also been used in constructing public discourse which links I slamic religion to political questions on violence affecting regions such as United States and United Kingdom. The picture of veiled woman is sympathetically constructed as victim of extremism within the society. This was even used as key justification for the bombing of Afghanistan and Iraq, since the countries were considered as exercising disregard for the plight of Afghan women. Oppressive regime of Taliban equates veiling with tyranny hence considered as part of enemy’s territory. Werbner, P. (2007) ‘Veiled Interventions in Pure Space: Honor Shame and Embodied Struggles among Muslims in Britain and France’ in Theory Culture and Society, 24(2) pp. 161-186 According to the article various theoretical bases of state and law have been enacted as a recognized means of handling differences in human behavior as portrayed by religious dogmas. Basically, the kind of faith predominant in an area is as a result of strong traditional, cultural and political features as presented by occupants. However, the natural law identifies certain human objective values and demands as the basis for legal systems within regions. According to doctrine of natural law, various important components of traditional and cultural behavior are considered as having strong influence on human rights. Conversely, religion is considered as specific cultural form capable of